Survey Research Method
Survey research is a way of collecting information from a large and dispersed group of people rather than from the very small number, which can be accommodated in a case study. The aim of all survey research is to obtain information about some specified population. Surveys involves obtaining data through asking questions. The most common techniques (involving asking questions) are interviews, and questionnaires.
The two foundation concepts of this method of research are the concepts of the (target) population and the sample. The purpose of the sample is to ‘stand in’ for the population from which it was taken, and therefore a researcher is not so much interested in the sample data itself, but in what it can tell in general about the population from which the sample is taken. To make generalisations from survey research the sample must be truly representative of the population in question.
Interviews
Interviews take many forms, some very informal, others more structured.
Unstructured (informal) Interviews
Unstuctured interviews are like a casual conversation. There are no set questions and the participant is given the opportunity to raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and about them in their own way. In this kind of interview much qualitative (i.e. descriptive) data is likely to be collected about how the person talks, when pauses occur in the conservation and well as what is said. Carl Rogers used this method in his person centred therapy as a means to help the client explore their own thoughts and feelings. During an unstructured interview an interviewee may take the interview in directions not anticipated at start (this would not happen in structured interview).
• Pro: Qualitative data: They are a rich source of (descriptive) data relating to what the interviewee themselves feel is important.
• Pro: It allows the researcher to discover points they may not have previously considered and may introduce new lines of enquiry, i.e. ask additional questions.
o Con: Lacks reliability as the interview cannot be repeated.
o Con: Different data will be collect from each participant so comparisons and analysis are difficult.
Structured (formal) Interviews
Structured (formal) interviews are like a job interview. There is a fixed, predetermined set of questions that are put to every subject in the same order and in the same way. The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee. Questions mat be open ended (e.g. “why do you enjoy listening to music?”), or have closed answers, that is a fixed choice of answers is offered (e.g. “What type of music do you enjoy? Jazz, Pop, Classical etc.”)
• Pro: Reliability: Because the situation is standardised results tend to be consistent.
• Pro: Quantitative data: Because the interview is usually aimed at gathering factual data that fits into predetermined categories it yields information that can easily be translated into numbers for the purpose of measurement.
o Con: Social desirability bias: Most people want to present themselves in the best possible light, so they may provide socially desirable rather than honest answers to personal questions.
Questionnaires (e.g. Likert scales, attitude statements & semantic differential)
Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone or post. The questions asked can be open ended, allowing flexibility in the respondent's answers, or they can be more tightly structured requiring short answers or a choice of answers from given alternatives. The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid bias or ambiguity in the questions, ‘leading’ the respondent, or causing offence.
Questionnaires are one of the main methods of gathering information in survey research Researchers first need to identify the population (those to whom the findings will apply) and then select a representative sample from whom to gather data on. Questionnaires can be an effective means of measuring the behaviour, attitudes, preferences, opinions and intentions of relatively large numbers of subjects more cheaply and quickly than other methods. An important distinction is between open-ended and closed questions.
Open-ended questions enable the respondent to answer in as much detail as she likes in her own words. For example: “can you tell me how happy you feel right now?” Lawrence Kohlberg presented his subjects with moral dilemmas. One of the most famous concerns a character called Heinz who is faced with the choice between watching his wife die of cancer or stealing the only drug that could help her. Subjects are asked whether Heinz should steal the drug or not and, more importantly, for their reasons why upholding or breaking the law is right. Open ended questions provide a rich source of qualitative information (i.e. more descriptive than numerical) as there is no restriction to the response. However, they are harder to analyse and make comparisons from.
Closed questions require the respondent to choose from a number of pre-set alternatives. For example, “do you feel happy right now? Yes or No?”. Sometimes there is a third category – “don’t’ know”. The data from closed questionnaires are very easy to collect and summarise and is often quantitative (i.e. numerical) so comparison is easier, put lacks the richness of open ended questions.
Another type of question is the rating scale. For example, “on a scale of 1-100, where 50 represents your normal level of happiness and 100 is the happiest you can feel, estimate how happy you feel right now”. Participants might also be asked whether they °strongly agree", "agree", "don't know", "disagree or "strongly disagree" with controversial statements that they can be expected to have an opinion on (this is known as a Likert scale). This method was used by Theodore Adorno who devised a scale to measure "potentiality for fascism (known as the F scale).
The questionnaire method is useful because:
• It can be good for collecting large amounts of data fairly quickly and cheaply.
• If respondents are anonymous their answers may be more honest.
• Reduces interviewer bias.
Problems with it are:
• The sample of people who agree to provide answers may not be representative of the population the researcher was hoping to test so generalisation is risky.
• Social desirability bias: People may respond in ways they think are socially acceptable rather than say what they really think.
Designing a Questionnaire
When designing a questionnaire, there are several ways you can approach the study:
- Use closed questions (fixed choice of answers), to generate data for easy analysis.
- Use open questions (space to write any answer) for more detailed individual answers.
- Keep questions and instructions clear and easy to understand.
- Ask purposeful questions to help find information needed for the study.
- Pre-code closed questions for quick analysis of the answers.
- Carry out a pilot study first, a test run, making changes if needed.
- Use attitude scales to test strength of feeling.
