аЯрЁБс>ўџ 9;ўџџџ8џџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџьЅС7 №П0bjbjUU .27|7|0џџџџџџlЬЬЬЬЬЬЬрLLLL Xр7њxxxxxxxxЖИИИИИИ$1 QšмЬxxxxxм<ЬЬxxё<<<xЬxЬxЖ<xЖ<о<Њ>|ЬЬЖxl @jW7?ФрlL~^КЖ07Ьъым`ыЖ<ррЬЬЬЬйSocial Influence Example Answer: Grade A Jan 2003 Paper (a) What is meant by: (i) Obedience Majority Influence (iii) Minority Influence (6 marks) (i) The term obedience refers to social influence in a situation where you are responding to a direct order given by an authority figure. Majority influence or ‘conformity’ refers to a situation where the individual’s attitudes, opinions or behaviour appears to be in agreement with the group.  However, it may be that the individual appears to agree with the group in order to be the same as everyone else in the group. (iii) Minority influence occurs when a small group influences the opinion of a much larger group. This is sometimes called conversion and can be seen in the case study of the film’ 12 angry men’ when one juror changed the opinion of the other eleven jurors. (b) Outline findings of research into conformity (majority influence) (6 marks) Asch found that 32% of naive participants conformed in critical trials of his line study. Participants conformed to the majority even though the stimulus material was unambiguous i.e. it was obvious what the correct answer was but 32% of Ps still agreed with the majority when they gave the wrong answer. In the Zimbardo prison experiment it was found that the guards conformed to the roles expected of them in that they took charge of the prisoners and treated them cruelly and the prisoners conformed to their roles in that they allowed this to happen and did not say that they wanted to stop the experiment. Some of them even asked for parole instead of asking to stop the experiment. In the Sherif autokinetic effect it was found that the participants decided on a norm of their own for the amount of movement in the light but due to social influence, the individuals changed their estimate when placed with two other Ps. They moved their estimate towards the estimate of the other two Ps. Even when tested on their own again the Ps tended to estimate the movement to match the group norm they had experienced. (c) ”Some studies of obedience are criticised for lacking experimental validity, others for lacking ecological validity and others for lacking both.” To what extent have studies of obedience been shown to lack validity? (18 marks) Many social influence experiments have been criticised for not having experimental validity. This means that it is possible that the participants were not convinced by the procedures, that they thought they were actually, for example, not giving electric shocks in the Milgram study or obeying an order given by someone who was a fake doctor in the Hofling study. High experimental validity would occur if the Ps actually believed that the procedures were real. Ecological validity is rarely found in laboratory experiments as the term means that the situation could easily be found in the real world. The procedures in the Milgram study, giving electric shocks to complete strangers would b unlikely to be an everyday situation. However, it can be argued that nurses, as in the Hofling study, may come across a situation where they are expected to follow orders given by a doctor in a hospital, during the working day and this would demonstrate ecological validity.   In the Milgram study involving the teacher giving electric shocks to the learner when he gave a wrong answer to a question, it has been suggested that there was high experimental validity. This has been suggested because of the high incidence of obedience found during the experiment as well as the responses from participants when asked if they were convinced that they were giving electric shocks to the learners. It was found that a high percentage of Ps were indeed convinced that they were administering the shocks. However this has been questioned by research carried out by Orne and Holland (1968) who argued that the experiments lacked experimental validity and that the Ps were in fact not deceived at all, that they were just going along with the act. The Milgram study, however, did lack ecological validity as the experiments took place in a laboratory and the Ps were in no doubt that they were taking part in an experiment although they were not told the true nature of the experiment. However, the procedures have been replicated in other cultures and similar results have been found, but again, Orne and Holland disagree with this saying that the lab surroundings are too ‘set up’ to be realistic and that people would not obey to this extent in real life situations. In contrast to the Milgram study on obedience, Hofling (196?) carried out an obedience study in a hospital. He telephoned nurses, on the ward, posing as a doctor who the nurses did not know, and gave instructions over the phone to administer 20mg of Astroten when the label on the bottle clearly said that 10mg was the maximum dose. Despite this being against the rules, 21 out of the 22 nurses obeyed the order. The study had high ecological validity as it took place in a hospital during a normal shift and the procedures were not unusual. Nurses take orders from doctors all the time. The study also had high experimental validity as none of the nurses guessed that they were being tested for obedience to authority and all said the they were often expected to take orders over the phone. However, Rank and Jacobson argued that the nurses may not have been so obedient if they had been asked to administer an overdose of a drug they were familiar with, such as Valium. This may have led them to question the order as they would be familiar with the outcome of an overdose of Valium. When looking at these two studies it would seem that the Hofling results support the results found by Milgram in that people do obey authority figures without question, whether in the real world or in the laboratory and that experimental validity is the most important issue in experiment. 89{Ѕ./0RM­_ ` ќ /0љючтлтжттЭ>*B*CJ phџOJQJ B*aJph B*phџ B*aJphџB*OJQJ^Jphџ OJQJ^J)89h{Ѕ/0KLPQRЌ­љљ№ъслЪИŸЪЪЪЪ’† $„fџd№]„fџa$ $„fџ„]„fџ^„a$$ & F Ц а„fџ„а„0§]„fџ^„а`„0§a$ Ца„fџ„а„0§]„fџ^„а`„0§$„fџ„а„0§]„fџ^„а`„0§a$„fџ]„fџ & F„fџ]„fџ„fџ]„fџ$„fџ]„fџa$„fџ]„fџ0§­п_ ќ ЪФСЬ 0яяттбтттттттт$„fџ„а„0§]„fџ^„а`„0§a$ $„fџ„а]„fџ^„аa$$„fџ„аd№]„fџ^„аa$ ,1hА‚. 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